Academia.eduAcademia.edu
ossile Irnin rigins for the Śākys nd Aspets of Buddhism Jayarava Attwood jyrv@gmil.om is rtil xplors th plusiility o ihl itzl’s spultion tht th Śāky tri might hv Irnin origins, or t lst Irnin onntions. Cirumstntil vin suggsts tht is ssoit with Irn n orostrinism ppr in north-st Ini, spilly mongst th śramana . groups, n in prtiulr mongst Buhists, ut not in th Brhmnil ultur. hrs Buhism is rquntly portry s  rspons to Brhmnism, or, spilly y Buhists, s historil, itzl’s suggstion givs us  nw vnu or xploring th history o is in Buhism. is ssy ttmpts to show tht, t th vry lst, possil onntions with Irn srv mor ttntion rom sholrs o th history o is in Ini n spilly Buhism. Introdution In Hrvr Inologist ihl itzl ommnt, on th Ino-Eursin srh onlin orum, tht w shoul trt th Śākys s n rly inursion o ythins (known in nskrit s Śk, n in Irnin s k) who rought with thm mny is rlt to Irnin ultur n/or orostrin rligion. H h m th sm suggstion rlir on th IDLG list (itzl ), n h in t pulish som o th vin or this proposition in itzl ( , I’m grtul to rossor ihl itzl or gnrously orrsponing with m n llowing m to stl his i. H si “xpt rsistn”. nks lso to rrs o rlir rs who hlp m to improv it onsirly n nourg m to pursu th i in th  o rsistn. . ( ): – .© Jyrv Attwood –  , ). o t, howvr, h hs not givn this i  ull trtmnt whih woul llow us to rlly ssss its mrits. In his Ino-Eursinsrh post itzl inti s  numr o turs o th Śākys whih ppr to support th inti tion, or xmpl: tris suh s th Śākys r lrgly snt rom th Vi litrtur n, whr thy r noti, thir ustoms r “strng”, ut thy r t th orront in Buhist txts, suggsting  lt migrtion into th Bihr rgion; th nm Śāky pprs to  ognt with Śk; th xistn o uril prtis in gh tht r similr to thos in Cntrl Asi; inst mrrigs; n post-mortm jugmnt o tions o th oy, sph n min tri. Drwing on rsrh rom  vrity o isiplins inluing philology, historil linguistis n rhology s wll s limt sin n gntis, this rtil onsirs whthr h tur inti  y itzl oul hv om rom Irn n thn xmins th possil rout or trnsmission rom Irn to Ini. In onlusion I xplor wht signi n this might hv or our unrstning o th history o isprtiulrly Buhist isin Ini. iling rrige In svrl pls, prtiulrly th Ambat. tha . Sutta (D.i. ) n its rvā ommntry, th prognitors o th Śākys r rlt to King kkāk: “ Śākyns rgr King kkāk s thir nstor” (lsh : ). In th Ambat. tha . Sutta th king nishs his lr rothrs rom his kingom n thy mk thir hom on th slops o th Himlys. But thy n n no on suitl to mrry, so thy tk thir own sistrs s wivs, n ths instuous rltionships giv ris to th Śākys. An it is this siling mrrig tht itzl inti s s n Irnin trit.  āli nm kkāk is usully inti  with th nskrit Iksvāku,  Kos. ln king. I hv not n l to tr th originl inti tion o kkāk n Iksvāku, ut th Mahāvastu (v) sustituts Iksvāku whr th āli hs kkāk . . (.g. v . ). As Jons sys, “ story hr givn, with som iffrns in nomnltur, ollows prtty losly tht in th āli txts” ( : , n. ). Howvr, in v th rothrs mrry  hl-sistr orn o  iffrnt mothr. Gigr’s Pāli Grammar points out tht th nms kkāk n Iksvāku r not simpl n. itzl (prsonl ommunition, ) sys tht th i gos k t lst to Jrl Chrpntir in th s, n prhps vn rlir. itzl lso mntions som othr turs, ut I hv not n l to ollow ths up. Jons nots this in his trnsltion long with  not on th nskrit txt ( : ). –  logus: “kkāk] is in t riv rom kkāk (*ukkhu si-orm o ucchu).  nlogil in un o kkāmukh lso h som fft” ( : ; § , n. ). ot tht . ukkā = kt. ulkā  rrn, torh’ (ognt with volcano). nskrit iksu . = āli ucchu n mns sugrn’.  āli ommntry on th Ambat. tha . Sutta rivs th nm kkāk rom ukkā, sying tht whn h spok light m rom his mouth lik  torh (ukkā yiva). (DA i. ). thr thn invnt  hypothtil intrmiry (viz. *ukkhu) it woul  mor strightorwr to tk okkāka t  vlu s  sonry nominl rivtiv: ukkā + -ka (with vrddhi); . n onsir tht v substitutes th nm Iksvāku or kkāk rthr thn trans. lating it. t is to sy tht th nms r not nlogus ut rr to two iffrnt popl; n tht y th tim n pl o th omposition o v th Śākys wr mor losly ssimilt to Kosl n it ws politi to intiy with  Kosln nstor. I suggst tht th onntion with Iksvāku ws invnt or prstig, . n is not oun in th āli txts. Givn th prjui ginst inst in ltr Buhist writing (ilk : – ), it is rmrkl tht this til o th Śākys rising rom n inst union ws prsrv. It is n xmpl o wht w stmnt sholrs ll th Principle of Embarrassment: “hn n uthor rvls, in th ours o  isussion, somthing tht is quit un ttring to th group or th position tht h or sh rprsnts, thr is  high gr o proility tht th sttmnt hs  sis in t” (ttir : ). itzl suggsts tht this story o inst mrrigs r ts  mmory o Irn. Jonthn ilk on rms tht this ws in n Irnin ustom: “thr is goo vin or this prti ll xv aētuuadaϑa, so-ll nxt-o-kin or los-kin mrrig” (ilk : ).  xtnt o this prti or th ssnin prio is unlr, n muh t y sholrs o orostrinism n Irnin history. By th Common Er Buhists wr onmning Irnins or this prti in thir txts, .g. in th Dharmarucy-avadāna n th Abhidharmakośabhāsya; . n similr onmntions wr m y thir Grk nighours n y th Chins t  ltr t (ilk : ). ot tht in Hrootus (iv. – )  story o th ouning o th ythins lso involvs  youngr rothr tking th thron in prn o his lr rothrs, though it os not involv n inst mrrig (tr l : – ). tassa kira rañño kathanakāle ukkā viya mukhato pabhā niccharati, tasmā tam . ‘‘okkāko’’ti sañjānimsūti (DA . ) . –  All this is to tk th origin story o th Śākys s history. In osmogoni myth inst is quit ommon. For xmpl, in B . ātman in th liknss o  mn (purusa) . rliss h is lon n splits into husn n wi. hn h ttmpts to hv sx with hr, sh s us o th inst too. In, whr thr is  singl prognitor or oupl thn inst o thir hilrn is invitl. Christin myth glosss ovr th t tht th hilrn o Am n Ev must hv ommitt inst in orr to popult th rth. Howvr, th story in th Ambat. tha . Sutta osn’t r lik rtion myth. In th vrsion o th Śāky origin story ror in th Sumaṅgalavilāsinī (th rvāin ommntry on th Dīgh ikāy), thr is som vin tht ross-ousin mrrig ourr in th Śāky n Koliy lns (Emnu : ). In ition, thr r xtnsiv gnlogis in th Mahāvamsa . tht show ross-ousin mrrigs (rutmn : – ). A ross-ousin mrrig is on in whih  oy woul mrry his mothr’s rothr’s ughtr, or  girl woul mrry hr thr’s sistr’s son. is is on o th prrr mths in outh Ini mongst th Drviin-spking popls. Goo ( ) hs n ritil o th i tht ross-ousin mrrig is th only, or most prrr, Drviin kin rltionship, n shows tht othr mrrig mths r m. B tht s it my, ross-ousin mrrig is  tur o Drviin kinship, n th Brhmnil lw ooks (th Dharmasūtras) mk it lr tht ousin mrrig is orin or Arys. (pr : ).  prption thn is tht i th Buh’s mily prtis ross-ousin mrrig, thy nnot hv n Arys, n wr likly Drviins.  i sms to go k t lst to , whn A.. Hort tri to us osrvtions rom th gnlogis o Śākys n Koliys to xplin th rltionship twn th Buh n Dvtt (Emnu : ). Alry in Emnu sw th min w in this rsoning: th rlist sours w hv or ross-ousin mrrig r rvā ommntril txts writtn in th th ntury in ri Lnk. o  grt xtnt thy r t th soity o th ntury ri Lnk. Furthrmor, thr is no orroorting vin rom th suttas or Vinaya tht ross-ousin mrrig took pl t ll, n vry littl gnlogil inormtion. Cross-ousin mrrig is not unknown in pl. Howvr it sms unlikly tht prsnt y ross-ousin mrrig hs ny ring on th tim o th Buh.  th groups whih prti ross-ousin mrrig tht I oul lo. y ( : ff.), who points out inonsistnis in th portryl o Dvtt. y thnks to ihr Gomrih or pointing this out. –  t, th Bhlr mov to th r wst o pl rom jsthn in th th ntury (Cmron ); whil th mng spk  ito-Burmn lngug n origint rom it (Frik ; ). Furthr in th s o th Bhlr th option o ross-ousin mrrig is rlt to th nssity or in-st mrrig within  vry smll popultion.  ovious onlusion, thn, is tht whn th uthors o th Mahāvamsa, . n th ommntris upon whih th Sumaṅgalavilāsinī ws s, st own to ompos  gnlogy or th Buh thy us milir gurs rom th ol txts, ut rrng thm in  wy whih sm nturl to thm: in othr wors, thy unslonsiously moll th Buh’s mily on thir own. Buril itzl ( ) nots tht Buhist stūpas “r similr to th kurgan typ grv mouns o outhrn ussi n Cntrl Asi.” Kurgan is  ussin wor mning rrow’, n thy r sri s “tumuli or roun uril mounts” (rnr : ). Kurgan mouns gin to ot th stpps s rly s th h millnnium n ontinu into mivl tims.  rly mouns ontin th rst whl wgons oun in this rgion (. thir millnnium ) n vin o omstit horss, long with mny othr rtts.  rquny o mouns in tim sms to oini with pks in nomi ttl-hring popls, n on o ths pk prios ws th rly Iron Ag (. – ) (orgunov & Khokhlov ).  kurgan mouns, howvr, r burial mouns, n th oupnts wr not rmt.  Annual Report of the Architectural Survey of India – nots tht th rlist orm o stūpa, possily pr-Buhist, suh s thos oun in Luriy n khri in Bihr, sm to hv onsist o rth pil up roun  ntrl woon pillr (in rzyluski : – ). ot tht this kin o stūpa is not intil to th kurgan, n pprs to  similr only in ing  roun uril moun. s rly stūpas wr iffrnt rom th vrious typs o Vi monumnts or th  ll śmaśāna (. Bkkr ).  Śatapatha Brāhmana . (ŚB . . . ) onsir roun śmaśāna to  ssoit with asuras (“mons”) s ginst th orthoox squr mmorils o Brhmins (itzl : ). till, thy wr not ssoit with ithr rlir Inin, or Vi ultur. Stūpas wr In ltr nskrit this is th norml wor or  hrnl groun, whr orpss wr rmt or simply non. –  lort ovr tim, ut rtin th roun shp o th moun within thir ovrll pln. Jn rzyluski spult tht th lort stūpas o th n ntury oini with th rrivl o Cntrl Asins in Ini, on th sis o thir similrity with kurgans ( : – ). vrl rly th ntury uthors noti th similrity o stūpas n kurgan mouns, .g. H.G. wlinson: “...rli-worship, n its onomitnt th stūpa, r quit un-Inin. Gutm long to th ky ln: wr thy n rly offshoot o th ks, th  or yths, who, s w know, ollow th Aryns rom tim to tim into Ini in sussiv wvs?  wor stūpa signi s  rrow,’ or tumulus,’  nskrit nm or  ythin ojt ... th] nhi tup, with its lortly rv ston riling, is vry proly th linl snnt o th ru rthn moun ovring th toms o th ythin hiins on th Cntrl Asi stpps....” ( : – ). or rntly  irt onntion twn th kurgan n stūpa hs n propos y Krl rnr ( , ). is is not our strongst vin.  suggstion o  onntion pprs to rst solly on th similrity o shp, whih oul sily hv volv y hn. An not tht th kurgan typilly ontin ois, not shs. t th ŚB sw th stūpa s moni only tlls us tht it ws not sntion y Lt Vi soity, n this lvs opn mny possiilitis.  lotion o primitiv mouns in Bihr, n not lswhr, might  onsistnt with th lt migrtion o Śākys. Howvr, i this wr th s w woul xpt to n suh mouns in jsthn rom n rlir prio. in th rly Bihr mouns r simpl onstrutions o pil-up rth, prhps thy i not surviv; or prhps thy i, ut hv not n oun, us rhology in Ini is r rom omprhnsiv. Body, peeh nd ind In hr ssy Man as Willer, Crolin hys Dvis notis tht th ivision o th prson into oy, sph n min (kāya, vāca, citta) or morl pur lso rzyluski ( , ), who its svrl mor xmpls, though som o ths uthors r ngtivly link to rintlism. hys Dvis only mntions th onntion in pssing, howvr, n prsnts it s n stlish t without rrns or xmpls.  osrvtion os not our in hys Dvis ( ), ut it ws inlu whn th ook ws sustntilly rvis ( : ).  osrvtion lso pprs in hys Dvis ( ). I n n no rrn rlir thn hys Dvis ( ).  i sms to origint with hr. –  poss, so ntrl to Buhist morlity is lso importnt in orostrinism.  trihumata, hūxta n hvaršta in Avstn (i.. goo thought, goo sph n goo s)is si to “npsult th thil gols o orostrinism” (Boy ), n ours in th rlist Irnin txts, suh s th Avesta n th Yasna Haptaŋhāiti. In th lttr, whih my wll hv n ompos y orostr, w n th ollowing: “ r thos who wlom th goo thoughts, goo wors, n goo ts whih, hr n lswhr, r n hv n rliz.  r not thos who nigrt goo (things).” (Boy ) is morl outlook oms ntrl in orostrinism, n is still importnt s  ous n  uniying tor or orostrins toy. hys Dvis nots tht th tri is not oun in othr rly Inin txts. Jn Gon’s survy Triads in the Vedas os not mntion this st in pr-Buhist txts, though h os n it in th Manusmrti . ( . ), whr it is rrr to s “tridan. da . th throl ontrol (ovr onsl)’, viz. ovr sph, thought, n oy” (Gon : ). I this is not  Buhist orrowing rom orostrinism thn it is n xtrorinry oinin. Krm nd the Aerlife itzl lso nots tht th i o s ing wigh r th ws not  Vi onpt. “is ws rst n Egyptin, thn  orostrin n Irnin onpt. It is onnt with th i o prsonl rsponsiility or on’s tion (karma)” (itzl ).  Egyptin orm o this i n  oun in e Egyptian Book of the Dead.  hrt o Ani th sri, rntly s, is wigh in  ln, with th lwrprsnt y  thr, or somtims th goss āton th othr si. Ani is oun to  rightous: “thr hth not n oun ny wiknss in him; h hth not wst th offrings in th tmpls; h hth not on hrm y his s; n h uttr no vil rports whil h ws upon rth” (Bug : ). y ttntion ws rwn to this onntion y tnprh in  ommnt on my log (http:// jyrv.logspot.om Jun ). H point to  mntion o it in nghrkshit ( : – ). nghrkshit rlls notiing th onntion whil ring th orostrin Gathas. (rsonl Communition . . .)  quivlnt nskrit trms – sumata, sūkta n suvrata – xist, ut not s  st, n not with th morl implitions. –  H is thn l into th prsn o siris (n oms on o th gos). ot his tions r ivi into oily n spokn, ut not (yt) mntl. H Ani’s hrt n hvy, i.. i h h not n rightous, h woul hv n givn ovr to Āmmt, th vourr o th . imilrly, in orostrinism th  r jug on thir tions uring li: “...th soul’s t pns solly on th sum o th iniviul’s thoughts, wors, n ts, th goo ing wigh ginst th , so tht no osrvns shoul vil it in ny wy.” (Boy ) For orostrins, thror, on’s rli stintion pns on on’s tions in li. hnilly non o th usul rits n rituls (.g. th śrāddha or unrl rits o th Brhmins) oul o nything out it; howvr, “humn wknss (inluing th or o nturl fftions) n humn illogility nl rthustr’s] ollowrs to mintin this otrin whil t th sm tim prorming mny rits or th prt soul’s n t.” (Boy ). Gnnth yskr ( ) outlins how this typ o thinking rsults in  iurtion o th rli. Hvn n Hll r nssry onsquns o th thiiztion o shtologis: “r n no longr   singl pl or thos who hv on goo n thos who hv on .  othrworl must minimlly split into two,  worl o rtriution (hll’) n  worl o rwr (hvn’).” (yskr : ) Howvr, goo n  n   n in mny wys. In Ini th pross n  sn in th Brhadāra nyaka n Chāndogya Upanisads, whih propos iffrnt . . . stintions or thos who know out th v rs (pañcāgni), thos who only prtis th orinry Brhmnil rituls, n thos who o nithr (B . , . – ; . C . – ). r is no hll hr, though rirth s  worm, inst or snk might hv n hinting t  vry unplsnt rli. In t th i o hll pprs s i rom nowhr in Vi thought. In Buhist shtology on’s rli stintion is link to on’s onut (karma) o oy, sph n min. Krm n rirth r thiis, n th rli oms vry lort, with v or six omins o rirth, n hvn n hll suivi into mny lyrs. . Brown ( ), Bowitz ( ), tusrg ( ). –  om Buhist txts o prsnt storis o jugmnt in th rli tht r rminisnt o orostrinism, n vn o th Egyptin Book of the Dead. For instn, th Devadūta Sutta ( iii. ) tlls how r th  ing who hs hv ly might  rorn in hll (niraya); thr thy will  siz y th gurins o hll (nirayapālā), rgg or King m n ross-xmin out thir vil onut o oy, sph n min. nl to ount or thmslvs, thy r thn onmn to horri  torturs, whih r grphilly sri, n it is mphsis tht “s long s tht vil tion is not stroy, h os not i.” An until h is, h nnot  rorn in nothr rlm. hn it is r in th light o  possil onntion to orostrinism, th Devadūta Sutta sms to tk on  nw signi n. rtiulrly th rol o m s jug n torturr sms to y in th  o imprsonl karma. It is spultiv, ut w oul s th Buhist thory o krm s th rsult o orostrin-styl thiiztion o onut, with its ffts on rli stintions, ppli to th Inin-styl rirth shtology.  rsult is  istintiv shtology n morlity. wo or ore Cultures Hving onsir som o itzl’s suggst prllls w must now turn to th prolm o how is rom Irn might hv n trnsmitt into th rs ssoit with Buhism, n smingly not, in most ss, to th intrvning Brhmnil ultur. ’ll gin y stting th sn. ithin th lst  th history o Ini in th rst millnnium hs n sustntilly rvis, lthough  onsnsus on th tils is still mrging. An pprisl o h thory is yon th sop o this rtil, ut most sholrs now gr tht y th ginning o th rst millnnium in ppr Gngs Vlly, in th r o th mun-Gngs Do, thr xist th Kuru-ñāl stt’. It ws villg-s rthr thn urn, n omint y th Kuru tri. It ws in this rgion tht th gv ws ompil, n th lort śrauta rituls wr . vlop.  lgns o th hāhārt r proly s on historil vnts in this rgion. itzl ( , , ), Bronkhorst ( ) n mul ( ) hv ll sri  son, joining ulturl omplx, m up o svrl smll stts in th Cntrl Gngs Vlly. It ws within this son rgion tht Buhism, Jinna ca tāva kālaṅkaroti yāva na tam . pāpakammam . byantīhoti. y trnsltion. –  ism n othr Śrmn . rligions mrg. is Cntrl gion ws not initilly or unmntlly Vi, ut it ws Ini lngug spking. Kuru-ñāl Brhmins, r som initil rlutn, gn migrting into th Cntrl gion . , so tht Brhmins tur in rly Buhist txts ut o not omint thm. r wr proly in uns rom Chlolithi ulturs in th Vinhy Hills, hrshtr, n th orthrn Dn, n possily som ito-Burmn in un s wll, though th ntur n xtnt o this in un is skthily unrstoo t st.  Cntrl gion lso sw th ginnings o th son urnistion o Ini, with itis suh s Kāśi (Vārānsi), Śrāvstī n ājgrh . . ing oun in th th or th ntury . s ts r still vgu n on s on urrnt gusss or th t o th Buh rthr thn rm rhologil ts (n thos gusss hv shi orwrs y  ntury sin most o th rhology ws rport). During th litim o th Buh th Cntrl Gngs plin kingoms Kosl n gh wr oth ggrssiv militristi stts tht wr xpning thir trritory. Dshpn ( , ) supports th i o two ulturs on th sis o historil linguistis. r wr st-wst iffrns in Ino-Aryn ilts, with th strn ilts thought to hv rokn wy rom th Ino-Irnin slightly rlir; this suggsts t lst two wvs o linguisti hng in Ini, ssoit prsumly with two wvs o immigrnts. Gnti stuis o not yt hv th rsolution rquir to sh light on this prolm. y o show migrnts rom th stpps o Cntrl Asi, who wr proly spkrs o Ino-Irnin or Ino-Aryn lngugs, ut ths migrnts must hv n w in numr n mostly ml (ngupt t l. , Crvlhoilv t l. , ih t l. , jumr ). is lvs us to xplin th ominn o Ino-Aryn soil ustoms, lngugs n thnology in orthrn Ini in trms othr thn ovrwhlming numrs or onqust. It is not lr tht w hv  stistory nswr to this qustion. Amist th lrgr-sl politil vlopmnts o th rst millnnium , th Śākys mrg s  mrginl popl living in th oothills o th Himlys t th northrn g o th Cntrl Gngs gion. y wr sor into th Kingom o Kosl y th n o th th ntury . ris suh s th ll, Vrji, . n in ll liklihoo th Śākys, sm to  lt ntrnts to this r. y r mntion in th āli, ut not in th lt Vi txts, whih ls itzl to propos tht thy only ppr in th rgion twn th Lt Vi n Erly  Brhrt . –  Buhist prios (itzl ), i.. twn out n . As w will s, thy rought with thm  numr o turs orign to xisting ulturs in th Gngs lin. Śākys nd Śks  ythins wr ttl-hring noms o th Eursin tpps who t iffrnt tims rng rom to st n twn out n north, or rom prsnt-y uv to th Blk .  tpps wr inhit y  numr o pstorlist n grrin groups, ut moil ttl hring m th ominnt listyl in th rly Iron Ag.  ythins r istinguish y thir omstition o horss, thir nomi ttl-ring listyl, thir uril mouns, n  n rtisti trition turing niml imgs. ir mtril ultur is sri in til in Dvis-Kimll t l. ( ). ny uthors ollow th Buh’s ontmporry, Hrootus (. – ), in rrring to th tris nountr nr Europ, spilly in th r north o th Blk , s Skythai (Gk. Σ ύ α ) or Scythian, n th tris o th Cntrl Asin tpps, to th st o th Cspin , s Sakai (Gk. Σά α ) or Sacae. In Irnin th ki r known s k, n in nskrit s Śk. is suggsts tht Śk/k/Σά α rprsnts wht thy ll thmslvs. Both ythin n Śk r us rthr loosly, howvr, n oth n rr to ny stppwlling popl. ythin is on us s  ror trm tht inlus th Śk s  sugroup, whih is how I will us it.  ythins i not us writing; howvr, th sholrly onsnsus is tht thy spok Ino-Irnin lngugs (lonsky , Forston ). n th sis o mtril ultur, prtiulrly kurgan or uril mouns, Cron ting shows thr min prios o ythin history (Alksv ): th – th nturis th – th nturis th – r nturis : pr-ythin n Initil ythin phs : rly ythin phs : lssil ythin phs  ythins wr importnt plyrs in history uring th Ahmni Empir, whih orrspons to th rly n lssil phs. vrl iffrnt groups o thm r ror oth in th royl insriptions o King Drius (. – ) n in th History o Hrootus. ost o th pr-ythin uril mouns r in th st o Cntrl Asi nr prsnt-y uv n ongoli, ut in th th –  ntury thr ws  rpi xpnsion wst, proly prompt y hngs in th limt (Dvis-Kimll t l. , vn Gl ). Howvr, vn t this rly stgth on whih most onrns usth ythins sm to hv wnr ross th whol o Eursi (Alksv , ).  ki o Hrootus’ nrrtiv, who liv on th Estrn shors o th Cspin , wnt on to om rulrs o prts o Irn, Aghnistn n Gnhār in th n n st nturis , ut r tht gn to  rom history. For itzl th similrity o th nms Śk n Śāky is no oinin. Both ppr to riv rom th root √śak, to  l, strong or powrul’. Śāky is proly  rivtiv orm mning rlt to, or sn rom, th Śks’ (.  sv. Śāky).  nms Śāky n Śk r proly ognt, howvr th unrlying mning is powrul’, n it is not unlikly tht two isprt groups might rr to thmslvs s th powrul’, or vn  givn tht pitht. In th Ambat. tha . Sutta th Śākys r sri s r, hrsh, touhy n rgumnttiv (can. dā, . pharusā, lahusā n bhassā) (D i. – ), whih oul  onsistnt with sriptions o stpps tris in Hrootus; ut w n to kp in min tht in itzl’s ount thy h rriv in Ini nturis or th Buh n h n thoroughly ssimilt.  similrity in nms is not nough to intiy th Śākys with th Irnin ks.  n to strt looking mor losly t why w might onsir th Śākys to riv rom th Śks. I’ll gin y looking t th i tht th Śākys rriv in Ini rltivly lt. igrtion in the th entury ihl itzl nots tht in Vi txts ssoit with th strn Gngs plin, non o th vrious tris tht popult th āli txts r oun.  ky, ll, Vjji, Lihvi, y, Kālām, Buli, oriy n Vsli r ll missing rom th Brāhmana txts. By ontrst, ānini knows th lls n th . . n Āranyaka . Vrjis s tris o th nj n jsthn rsptivly. om o th lls must . hv rmin hin, s Alxnr’s mssors mt popl ll “lloi” (itzl : ). itzl rsons tht ths tris must hv rriv in Ini n migrt stwrs in th sp twn th omposition o th lt Vi txts n th litim o th Buh, i.. twn out n (itzl : ).  t tht th Śākys r not mntion until th Buhist prio my  xplin in othr wys. y my hv n inignous to th rthough this riss th qustion o whr thy got n Ini-lngug nm, sin th inig- –  nous popl most likly spok n Austro-Asiti lngug. y my hv n n rly wv o th Ini-spking popls. Howvr, ths xplntions on’t xplin how th Śākys m into ontt with is suh s iviing th prson into oy, sph n min or morl purposs, whih is so vry lik th orostrin i. itzl’s tim rm or th migrtion o non-Vi tris stwrs is still vry ro, ut w n nrrow it own. Asko rpol ( ) hs inpnntly put orwr  vry similr hypothsis. rpol is onrn with th ān. vs, . n y omining rhologil n txtul vin h oms to th onlusion tht  group o Irnins, gnrilly ll ān. u . or pl’, ntr Ini roun vi th Inus Vlly. om o th ān. us . wnt north to om th ān. vs o th Mahābhārata, ut th min prt o rpol’s rgumnt hs th . ān. us ontinuing to migrt southwrs own th wst ost n vntully . oming th rst Ino-Europn spkrs in ri Lnk (rpol : – ). A possil wknss o this rgumnt is tht inhls is usully onsir n Ini rthr thn n Irnin lngug. Howvr, rpol suggsts tht th ān. vs . “quikly opt th rlir lol ultur n lngug”, n w ssum th protoinhls ān. u with th . i th sm. Hr w might ompr th ān. vs . th ntury ors migrnts to ormny, who rpily opt Frnh lngug n ustoms. Furthrmor, th ān. vs’ nwly-won positions wr “lgitimis . with rit gnlogis tht m thm  rnh o th rlir ruling mily” (rpol : ). king somthing o n intuitiv lp, rpol s: “Anothr sussul group ws th mily to whih th Buh long: th Śākys, too wr ān. us, . ultimtly o Śk origin, s thir nm rvls” (rpol : ). rpol’s t o . or th ginning o this migrtion is wll within itzl’s tim rm. As it hppns, limt sintists hv propos tht n rupt limt shi “towrs inrs humiity us y  lin o solr tivity” llow or  rmti xpnsion o ythin ultur roun (vn Gl t l. , ; lso Chmrs t l. ).  shi proly hppn rpily, within prhps  , n lso l to “ rynss risis” us y wk monsoon intnsity in north-wst Ini r (vn Gl t l. ). Vn Gl t l. lso not tht “riity or popl to shi rom sntism to shp/got pstorlism” (vn Gl t l. : ), whil Gupt t l. suggst tht hngs in rops grown woul lso rsult rom limt hng n my xplin th us –  o millt, lntils, hik ps t. (Gupt t l. : ). At th sm tim, glithi popl wr moving rom outh Ini into th Dn with iron n horss, n “thy wr proly rsponsil or th n o th Chlolithi ultur in this rgion” (vn Gl t l. : ). Asko rpol, howvr, ss th mgliths o outh Ini s  prout o th ān. us : . moving south (rpol ). Anothr possil vin o vin is suggst y oms Hopkins’s lim (in mul ) tht th Cntrl Gngs ultur h similritis to th lw ultur.  lw wr on o svrl Chlolithi soitis whih ourish in th orthrn Dn, hrshtr n Gujrt uring th son millnnium . A tur o ths ulturs is tht thy, lik th Inus Civilistion, s rltivly ruptly. “A rsti hng in th limt ourr roun B.C., whn inrsing riity st in. is proly l to srtion o th vst mjority o Chlolithi sttlmnts” (Dhvlikr : ).  nl srtion ourr roun . It my  tht th mor rnt n pris t o pplis hr s wll, n tht th ollps o Chlolithi ulturs in th Dn mirrors th onitions  y th lls, Vrji . n Śākys.  th ntury hng in limt lso orrspons roughly with th hng rom ronz to iron. It lso orrspons to th ompiltion o th gv . into  olltion (Dshpn : ). Climt hng t whih n  urt to within s my  n inrsingly usul tool in stlishing th hronology o nint Inin ulturl hngs.  t o or this rupt hng ts th t propos y rpol, n this in turn lns support to itzl’s onjtur. hthr or not th Śks wr rlly ān. us, . s rpol suggsts, w oul t lst imgin tht  shrp rution in monsoon intnsity, omin with prssur rom outsi Ini in th orm o vigorous n xpning tris o stpp noms, my hv us th migrtions o th lls n Vrjis . tht r rsonly wll ttst. ther oures of Irnin In uene Aginst this pitur w n to rll tht th Ahmni Empir lim or ontroll trritory s r st s th Inus ivr rom th lt th ntury until Alxnr o on inv in .  xtnt n urtion o this ontrol is still  mttr o t, ut oring to Hrootus th strpy o Hinuš –  ws th lrgst in th Empir. r wr mny potntil vtors or Irnin n sopotmin is to n thir wy into Ini, with politil n tr tis.  might not, or instn, tht Inin writing systms, rst th Khros. thī . sript n ltr Brāhmī-Lipi, sm to  s t lst in prt on th orm o Armi writing us y Ahmni ministrtors.  wor lipi writing’ itsl is  rsin lon wor (lomon : ). A lt āli trition sris prins ing snt to xil or ution, n xil ws th min Ahmni ity in Gnhār. Anothr point m y mul, s on Hopkins’ unpulish ook, is tht th rst us o oins in Ini is rlt to tr ontts twn th Ahmnis n th Cntrl Gngti rgion (mul : ). Aoring to Dvi ingr, Bylonin stronomy gn to  introu into Ini vi n Irnin intrmiry, n this nnot hv hppn or th Ahmni Empir onqur oth sopotmi n Gnhār (ingr : ). Howvr, som yrs ltr h sys “th in un o th stronomy o sopotmin txt] Mul.Apin upon Vi txts ompos shortly or n out n  lrly isrn” (ingr : ). For instn, th Jyotisavedāṅga (. th ntury ) ontins  lnr whih is similr to . Bylonin stronomy (ingr : ). ingr lso noti tht  list o ivintion thniqus oun in th Brahmajāla Sutta is lmost intil in orm n ontnt to sopotmin ivintion mnuls Šumma ālu n Enūna anu Enlil (ingr , ). t th sutta oris th monks rom using ths typs o ivintion suggsts tht thy wr tivly prtis in orth-Est Ini.  liklihoo is tht thy wr spr to Ini in Irnin rnsions y th Ahmnis (ingr : ).  prision o th mmory, omin with th story o Barlaam & Ioasaph, is suggstiv to tphni Dlly: “is is th st vin w hv or Chln sholrs living r ro s xprts n tutors in royl ourts....” (Dlly : ).  vin to support th prsn o Chlns in Ini t th tim is skthy t st, n o ours th i o th Buh’s thr ing  king is inurt. Dlly sms to  ovrrhing th vin hr.  point m y Gérr Fussmn in his Gon ltur is rlvnt: “ my lso suppos tht th non-Vi hrtristis o som rly Inin ough tr l ( ) nots tht this my   misring.  story o Brlm & Iosph (oowr & ttingly ) is supposly s on  Jātk story, ut th surviving vrsions r so hvy with Christin rtions tht intiying Buhist lmnts is srly possil. –  onptions r not nssrily orrowings rom th inignous Inin popls th Ārys vnquish or ssimilt, ut Āryn is whih nvr oun  pl in th Vs” (Fussmn : ). igni ne Is hv historis. An yt Buhist nrrtivs o th historil uniqunss o th Buh pt tht th Śākyn g prou  numr o is n prtis with no pprnt history.  lst two s hv sn svrl ttmpts to rt historis or som o th Buh’s is, ut ths ttmpts r, lmost invitly, mostly with rrn to Vi ultur.  know so vry littl out Inin soil history outsi th Vi miliu or Buhism tht othr omprisons r srly possil. hr thr is txtul vin or . it is all Vi; n rhology hs provi prious littl hlp to t. Bronkhorst ( ) hs ttmpt to turn th pt hronology on its h n m th Buhists irtly in until on th pniss, ut whthr this rvision is ril rmins . to  sn. Both Bronkhorst ( ) n Gomrih ( ) hv rgu tht Buhists must hv n in un y thir Jin ontmporris, ut s Gomrih ( : ) sys, “ur vin or rly Jinism is istrssingly mgr n iffiult to vlut”, n “In t muh o our st vin or rly Jinism oms rom Buhist] txts in āli.” om historins hv ritiis th us o āli txts in ronstruting Buhist history (ltrs : – ), so thir us in ronstruting  iffrnt n ompting rligion must  outul t st. Evn i th nw is o Buhism h thir origin in  singl iniviul, tht iniviul xist in  ulturl ontxt, grw up in  mily, n sor is n ttitus rom prnts, prs n thrs. Buhism mrgs rom n pprntly ivrs ulturl miliu, in whih th Śāky tri h n onqur y  ynmi n ulturlly istint nighour, n othr mjor politil hngs wr going on.  is n prtis ssoit with th Śākys n rly Buhists ssy ov o show som similrity to Irnin or orostrin is or prtis.  wkst link is th similrity twn stūpas n kurgan uril mouns. Dspit th onvition o som o th uthors it, this onntion sms tnuous t st. Howvr, th inst mrrigs whih mrk th ouning o th Śāky ln oring to th āli Cnon r mor suggstiv, spilly in light o th hostility to th prti y ltr Buhist uthors. iling mrrigs r milir in Irn; n w unrstn tht suh  story is likly to hv surviv only i it hs –   grin o truth.  strongst rgumnt or  link to orostrinism is th ivision o tions into oy, sph n min. t this i vlop in Irn n th Cntrl Gngs plin inpnntly woul   wil oinin. thr spts o shtology r suggstiv.  i o post-mortm jugmnt or vryy tions, lt lon ing jug y  go, is not  prt o Vi shtology in B or C, ut is ntrl to orostrinism n Buhism. rtiulrly, th i o  rlm o punishmnt sms to  missing rom Vi shtology ut is prominnt in oth orostrinism n Buhism. I think most historins woul pt tht uring th prio unr onsirtion tht th orr twn Ini n rsi ws lurr rthr thn shrp, oth in gogrphil n ulturl trms – just s th istintion twn kistn n Aghnistn is toy. thr potntil sours o Irnin in un xist, ut thy o not hv th sm xplntory powr s th Śāky/Śk onntion us thy r mor or lss ontmporry with th Buh. impl gogrphy suggsts tht ontt twn Ini n Irn woul hv ourr in th strn rgions o Ini, i.. th Inus Vlly, n th ppr Gngs gion, ut s r s I m wr thr is no grt in un o Irnin ultur on Vi ultur. Bus itzl’s thory inlus  lt migrtion into Estrn Ini rom  nonVi prt o strn Ini, it provis  vtor or rrying th is roun th Kuru-ñāl stt n irtly into th Cntrl Gngs gion. hil this is n rgumnt rom irumstntil vin, I hop I hv shown tht th vin, suh s it is, mks  onntion twn th Śākys n Irn t lst plusil. I this thsis is orrt, thn som turs o Buhism r tully ulturl turs o th Śāky tri prsrv rom n rlir prio o living in Irn. It still llows or th Buh s visionry n innovtor, n it os not ny th in un o Brhmins n Jins, ut it rons th ulturl pool rom whih h might hv rwn his is. I th rgumnt is pt, whih rmins to  sn, thn it oviously hs som intrsting implitions or th stuy o th history o Ini n rly Buhism. vr th lst two s or so n inrsingly rih n omplx ount o Inin history or th Common Er hs mrg. Buhism hs om to  sn s involv in  ilogu with th surrouning ulturs n s rwing is n prtis rom thm. rhps it ws this ilogu with so mny ompting iologis tht hlp Buhism to r itsl o tril tis n om  rligion whih ppl to nyon? ht is rlly intrsting out itzl’s Irnin origin thory or th Śākys is tht it my llow us to s th Buh s  prout o his –  own ultur. I itzl’s thsis is orrt, n I think it rtinly mrits srious onsirtion n urthr invstigtion, it suggsts tht gurs lik th Buh n hāvīr my hv n th ulmintion o  pross rthr thn its gnsis. t pross ws th ssimiltion o  tri, or tris, who rriv in north-st Ini in th lt th ntury , n rought with thm is n prtis rom Irn n orostrinism. Arevitions B C D Gk.   v V . ŚB kt. Brhār nyk pnis. . . . Chānogy pnis . Dīgh ikāy Grk jjhim ikāy onir-illims nskrit English Ditionry hāvstu gv . Śtpth Brāhmn . nskrit Biliogrphy Alksv, A u t l. . A Chronology o th ythin Antiquitis o Eursi Bs on w Arhologil n C Dt.’ Radiocarbon, ( B): – . Alksv, A u t l. . om rolms in th tuy o th Chronology o th Anint omi Culturs in Eursi ( th - r Cnturis BC).’ Geochronometria: Journal on Methods and Applications of Absolute Chronology. : – . Bkkr, Hns . . onumnts to th D in Anint orth Ini.’ Indo-Iranian Journal. : – . Brhrt, Hinz (.) . e Dating of the Historical Buddha/Die Datierung des Historischen Buddha, part (Symposien zur Buddhismusforschung, IV ). Göttingn: Vnnhok & uprht, pp. - . Bowitz, H.. .  Drk n Dp nrworl in th V.’ Journal of the American Oriental Society. ( ): – . Boy, ry. . Dth ( ) Among orostrins.’ Encyclopaedia Iranica: Vol. VII, Fs. : – . nlin: http://www.irnionlin.org/rtils/th- . –  Boy, ry. . Humt Hūxt Huvršt.’ Encyclopædia Iranica. nlin: http:// www.irnionlin.org/rtils/humt-huxt-huvrst. Bronkhorst, Johnns. . Greater Magadha: studies in the culture of early India. Lin: Brill. Brown, ormn . .  igvi Equivlnt or Hll.’ Journal of the American Oriental Society. ( ): – . Cmron, ry . . n the Edge of the Auspicious: Gender and Caste in Nepal. nivrsity o Illinois rss. Crvlho-ilv, Dnis, rjl, tin, n ylr-mith, Chris. . Anint Inin roots?’ Journal of Biosciences. ( ): – . Chmrs, Frnk . t l. . Glolly synhronous limt hng yrs go: roxy t rom pt in outh Amri.’ Earth and Planetary Science Letters. ( – ): – . Dlly, tphni. . e Legacy of Mesopotamia. xor nivrsity rss. Dvis-Kimll, Jnnin t l. (s). . Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age. Brkly, CA: int rss. Dshpn, hv . . Gnsis o gvi rtro xion:  Historil n . oiolinguisti Invstigtion.’ in Dshpn, .. n Hook, .. Aryan and Non-Aryan in India. Cntr or outh n outhst Asin tuis. nivrsity o ihign. Emnu, .B. . s r Cross-Cousin rrig mong th Śākys?’ Journal of the American Oriental Society. ( ): – . Forstn, Bnjmin . IV. . Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. ( n .) ily-Blkwll. Frik, oms E., ornton, Arln, n Dhl, Dilli . . Fmily rgnistion n th g Lour rnsition in  mng Community o pl.’ Human Ecology. ( ): - . Frik, oms E., ornton, Arln, n Dhl, Dilli . . tting in pl: oil Chng, th Li Cours, n Brisrvi in ngil.’ Human Ecology. ( ): - . Fussmn, Gérr. . Revisiting the History of Ancient India: e Need for a New Vision. th Gon Ltur. Amstrm: oyl thrlns Amy o Arts n ins. nlin: http://www.knw.nl/Contnt/IntrntKA/pulitis/p/ .p. Gigr, . . A Pāli Grammar. v. .] (riginlly pulish , & trns. ). Gomrih, ihr. . What the Buddha ought. Lonon: Equinox. Gon, Jn. . Triads in the Veda. orth-Holln u. Co. –  Goo, Anthony. . n th on-Existn o “Drviin Kinship”.’ Edinburgh Papers In South Asian Studies. . Cntr or outh Asin tuis, nivrsity o Einurgh. Gupt, Anil K. . Apttion n humn migrtion, n vin o griultur oinint with hngs in th Inin summr monsoon uring th Holon.’ Current Science. ( ): – . Huntr, .. . e Indian Empire: its People, History and Products. Lonon : rünr & Co. Jons, J.J. . e Mahāvastu. Vols. Luz & Co. Jurwiz, Jonn. .  gv, “smll sl” soitis n rirth shtology.’ . A rvis vrsion o hr onrn ppr rom th th orl nskrit Conrn, July .] Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies. nlin: http://www.os. org/. uly, G.C. (trns.) . e History of Herodotus: parallel English/ Greek. milln. jumr, rth . .  humn gnti history o outh Asi.’ Current Biology. F ; ( ):  – . lnr, .. . orostr ii. Gnrl urvy.’ Encyclopædia Iranica. nlin: http://www.irnionlin.org/rtils/zorostr-ii-gnrl-survy. orgunov, .L. & Khokhlov, .. . Kurgns n noms: nw invstigtions o moun urils in th southrn rls.’ Antiquity. : – . ttir, Jn. . A Few Good Men: e Bodhisattva Path According to e Inquiry of Ugra (Ugrapariprcchā). nivrsity o Hwi’i rss. . yskr, Gnnth. . Imagining Karma: Ethical Transformation in Amerindian, Buddhist, and Greek Rebirth. nivrsity o Cliorni rss. rpol, Asko. . “Πανδα n īt: n th Historil Bkgroun o th nskrit Epis.’ Journal of the American Oriental Society. ( ): – . ingr, Dvi. . Astronomy n Astrology in Ini n Irn.’ Isis. ( ) no. . ingr, Dvi. . sopotmin omns in nskrit’ ppr prsnt t La Circulation des biens, des personnes et des idées dans le proche-oriet ancien. Actes de la XXXVIIIe Recontre Assyriologique Internationale. ris, – juillt. ingr, Dvi. . Lgis in Astronomy n Clstil mns.’ in Dlly, tphni. (.) e Legacy of Mesopotamia. xor nivrsity rss. rzyluski, Jn. .  Hrmik n th rigin o Buhist tūps.’ e Indian Historical Quarterly. I ( ) Jun: – . rzyluski, Jn. . Ls spt trrs u Bruur.’ Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. ( ): – . –  y, ginl A. . Buddhist Saints in India: A Study of Buddhist Values and Orientations. xor nivrsity rss. ih, Dvi t l. . onstruting Inin popultion history.’ Nature. : – ( ptmr ). hys Dvis, C.A.F. . Buddhist Psychology: An Inquiry Into the Analysis and eory of Mind in Pāli literature. ( n .) Luz & Co. hys Dvis, C.A.F. . n s illr.’ Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. : – . hys Dvis, C.A.F. . A Manual of Buddhism for Advanced Students. Lonon : hlon rss. hys Dvis, C.A.F. . e Birth of Indian Psychology and its Development in Buddhism. Luz & Co. hys Dvis, .. . Buddhist India. otill Bnrsiss, . lomon, ihr. . Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandhara. nivrsity o shington rss. mul, Goffry. . e Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the irteenth Century. Cmrig nivrsity rss. nghrkshit. . e Ten Pillars of Buddhism. inhors ulitions. ngupt, nghmitr t l. . olrity n mporlity o High-solution -Chromosom Distriutions in Ini Intiy Both Inignous n Exognous Expnsions n vl inor Gnti In un o Cntrl Asin storlists.’ e American Journal of Human Genetics. ( ): – . ilk, Jonthn A. . Instuous Anstris:  Fmily rigins o Gutm ihārth, Arhm n rh in Gnsis : , n th ttus o riptur in Buhism.’ History of Religions. ( ): – . ilk, Jonthn A. . uttiv rsin prvrsitis: Inin Buhist onmntions o orostrin los-kin mrrig in ontxt.’ Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. : – . ingh, nij rtp. . Agriulturl Bkgroun o th Chlolithi Culturs o Cntrl Ini n th Dn.’ in Gopl, Lllnji n rivstv, V.C. (s.). . History of agriculture in India, up to c. A.D. w Dlhi : Jointly ulish y CC n Conpt u. Co. or th rojt o History o Inin in, hilosophy n Cultur, : pp. – . tusrg, ihl. . Hll in orostrin History.’ Numen: International Review for the History of Religions. ( / ): – . trzygowski, Jos. .  rint or th orth.’ Eastern Art. ( ): – . pr, omil. . e Penguin History of Early India: From Origins to AD . nguin Books. –  pr, omil. . Ancient Indian Social History: Some Interpretations. ( n v. .) rint Blkswn. rutmnn, oms . . Consnguinous rrig in li Litrtur.’ Journal of the American Oriental Society. ( ): – . suhi, yūtrō. . wo Ctgoris o Brhmins in th Erly Buhist rio.’ e Memoirs of the Toyo Bunko. : – . vn Gl, B. t l. . Climt hng n th xpnsion o th ythin ultur r BC:  hypothsis.’ Journal of Archaeological Science. ( ) Dmr: – . vn Gl, B., hin, V. n su, ., . olr oring o limt hng n  monsoon-rlt ulturl shi in wstrn Ini roun l. yrs. BC.’ Chptr in: . su n V. hin (s) Monsoon and Civilization. oli Books, w Dlhi, pp. – . lsh, uri. . e Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya. isom ulitions. ltrs, Jonthn . . utts s History: Four Approhs to th rmon on th ol ust (Ariypriysn-sutt). History of Religions. ( ) F: – . tr l, oin. (trns.) nivrsity rss. . Herodotus: e Histories. (print .) xor rnr, Krl. .  Ino-Europns n th Ino-Aryns: th hilologil, Arhologil n Historil Contxt. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. LVIII: – . rnr, Krl. . r nskrit xts on City orship…’ Book viw] Buddhist Studies Review. ( ): – . itzl, ihl. . n th lolistion o Vi txts n shools (trils on Vi skhs, ). India and the Ancient world. History, Trade and Culture before A.D. . .H.L. Eggrmont Juil Volum, . y G. ollt, rintli Lovninsi Anlt , Luvn : – . itzl, ihl. . ring th Vi ilts.’ Dialectes dans les littératures indoaryennes, . y Coltt Cillt. ris , pp. – . itzl, ihl. . Erly nskritiztion: rigins n Dvlopmnt o th Kuru tt.’ Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. ( ) D. . itzl, ihl. .  Dvlopmnt o th Vi Cnon n its hools:  oil n olitil iliu.’ (trils on Vi Śākhās, ) in Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts. New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas. (Hrvr rintl ris. pr inor, vol. .) Cmrig , pp. – . itzl, ihl. . Erly ours or outh Asin ustrt Lngugs.’ Mother Tongue. pil Issu, t. . –  itzl, ihl. . Autohthonous Aryns?  Evin rom l Inin n Irnin xts.’ Electron Journal of Vedic Studies. y . itzl, ihl. . IDLG@livrpool..uk, ov. n , . itzl, ihl. . oving rgts? xts, Lngug, Arhology n History in th Lt Vi n rly Buhist rios.’ Indo-Iranian Journal. : – . itzl, ihl. . Ino-Eursinrsrh. nlin orum.] http:// groups. yhoo.om/group/Ino-Eursinrsrh/mssg/ . oowr, G., ttingly, H. n Lng, D.. . Barlaam and Ioasaph. Hrvr: Lo Clssil Lirry. ynn, Alxnr. . e Origin of Buddhist Meditation. outlg. lonsky, Loni . . om Ethnogntil Hypothss’ in Dvis-Kimll, Jnnin t l (s.). . Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age. Brkly, CA: int rss: pp. – .